Unit 6

Alright guys, the year is closing in, and to celebrate, let's go over the last unit: Unit 6.

Memory:

 the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.
Memory process-
encoding- the processing of information into the memory system.
storage-the retention of encoded material over time.
retrieval- the process of getting the information out of memory storage.

Recall VS. Recognition:

recall- you must retrieve the information from your memory
  recognition- you must identify the target from possible targets.

Flashbulb Memory

 a clear moment of an emotionally significant moment or
event.

Implicit Learning -

Observable improvements in a person's motor performance of which the person has no awareness.

Observational Learning:

Albert Bandura and his BoBo Doll

We learn through modeling behavior from others.Observational learning and  Operant Conditioning

Latent Learning:

 sometimes learning is hidden.

Insight Learning:

 Wolfgang Kohler and his chimpanzees.

Some animals learn through the "ah ha" experience.

PositivePunishment- 

something bad added to decrease unwanted behavior

Negative Punishment- 

something good removed to cause unwanted behavior to decrease.

State of Consciousness(sleep, hypnosis, drugs)

Sleep-

 a state of consciousness

(We are less aware of our surroundings)

Levels:

Conscious

Subconscious

Unconscious Daydreaming:

•help us prepare for future events

•nourish our social development

• can substitute for impulsive behavior

Fantasy Prone Personalities:

Someone who imagines and recalls experiences with lifelike vividness and who spends considerable time fantasizing.

Biological Rhythms:

Annual cycles- seasonal variations (ex. Hibernation. Seasonal affective disorder)

28 day cycle- menstrual cycle

24 hr cycle- our circadian rhythm

90minute cycle- sleep cycles.

Circadian Rhythm: our 24hr clock

•body temp and awareness changes throughout the day

(Best to test or study during circadian peaks.)

Sleep stages: (5)

•takes about 90-100min  for all stages to pass., brain waves will change according to sleep stage, first 4 stages are called NREM sleep,

 5th stage is REM sleep

1) half wake, half sleep

Only last a few minutes

Eyes roll slightly

Brain produces Theta Waves (high amplitude, low frequency/ slow)

2) baseline of sleep

90minute cycle , occupies about 45-60%  of sleep

More Theta Waves get progressively slower

3) slow wave sleep, produce delta waves, if woken will be groggy (vital for restoring body's growth, hormones and good health)

3/4)  lasts 15-30min, slow wave because brain activity slows dramatically from theta rhythm of stage 2 to the much slower delta and the height or amplitude of the waves increases dramatically.

Delta sleep (deepest stage of sleep NOT REM and most restorative)

That of a sleep deprived persons.

In children, delta sleep can occupy up to 40% of all sleep time, "dead sleep"

5) REM SLEEP 20-25% of nights

Breathing, heart rate and brain wave activity quicken.

Vivid dream

Lucid dream

rapid eye movement, very active brain , where dreams usually occur.  Body essentially paralyzed. 

Insomnia- problems falling asleep, affects 10% of the population.

Narcolepsy- suffer from sleeplessness and may fall asleep at unpredictable or inappropriate times.  Directly into REM sleep. Less than .001% of population.

Sleep Apnea- a person stops breathing during their sleep. Wake up momentarily, gasps for air, then falls back asleep. Very common, especially in heavy males. CAN BE FATAL

Night Terrors- sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified. Occur in Stage 4, not REM and are not often remembered.

Sleepwalking- affecting an estimated 10% of all humans at least once in their lives.

•most often occurs during deep non-REM sleep (stage 3 or stage 4 sleep) early in the night. 

lol

Lol i just took the psych ap exam lol.

Perception

-the process of organizing and interpreting information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Gestalt Philosophy:

the whole is greater than the sum of its parts

Figure-Ground Relationships:

the organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground)

Grouping:

 the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into groups that we understand

Sensation

Your Window to the world and the process by which one sensory receptors and nervous system receive stimulus from the environment

Bottom-Up Processing:

 begins with sense receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information (thalamus)

Top-Down Processing:

 information processing guided by higher level mental processes

Thresholds

-Absolute Threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

-Difference Threshold

the minimum difference a person can detect between two stimuli

Weber's Law

-the idea that to perceive a difference between two stimuli, they must differ by a constant percentage, not a constant amount

Signal Detection Theory

-predicts how we detect a stimulus and other stimuli

Sensory Adaptation

-decreased responsiveness to stimuli due to constant stimulation

Selective Attention

-the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

CocktailParty Phenomenon

-the ability to focus one's listening attention on a single talker among a micture of conversations and background noises, ignoring other conversations

VISION

the most  dominating sense

Visual Capture:

PHASE ONE: gathering light

short wavelength = high frequency (bluish colors, high pitched sounds); long wavelength = low frequency (reddish colors, low pitched sounds)

height of a wave gives us its intensity (brightness)

length of a wave gives its hue (color)

the longer the wavelength, the redder; and the shorter the more violet

PHASE TWO: Getting the light in the eye

Cornea --> Pupil --> Lens --> Retina

Color Vision

The Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory (Three Color Theory)

three types of cones: red, blue, green

these three types of cones can make millions of combinations of colors

Opponent-Process Theory

the sensory receptors come in pairs; if one color is stimulated, the other is inhibited

Red/Green

Yellow/Blue

Black/White

HEARING

 

we hear sound waves and the height of the wave gives us the amplitude of the sound, the frequency gives the pitch

Transduction in the Ear

-Sound waves hit the eardrum, then anvil, then hammer, then stirrup, then oval window

-everything is just vibrating

-then the cochlea vibrates

-the cochlea is lined with mucus called basilar membrane (contains hypersensitive hairs)

-when hair cells vibrate, they turn vibrations into neural impulses which are called organ of Corti

-then sent to thalamus up the auditory nerve

Place Theory:

 different hairs vibrate in the cochlea when there are different pitches

some hairs vibrate when they hear high pitches and others vibrate when they hear low pitches

Frequency Theory:

 all the hairs vibrate but at different speeds

Conduction Deafness:

 something goes wrong with the sound and the vibrations on the way to the cochlea

you can replace the bones or get a hearing aid to help

Nerve (sensorineural) Deafness:

 the hair cells in the cochlea get damaged

can be caused by loud noises

hairs are irreplaceable

cochlea implant is possible

Smell and Taste

-sensory interaction:

the principle that one sense may influence another

Taste

-we have bumps on our tongue called papillae

-taste buds are located on the papillae (all over the mouth)

-sweet, salty, sour, bitter, spice

-Umami:

 flavorful, meaty, savory taste

Touch

-receptors located in our skin

-Gate Control Theory of Pain:

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass onto the brain

-Vestibular Sense:

tells us where our body is oriented in space; our sense of balance

-Kinesthetic Sense:

 tells us where our body parts are; receptors located in our muscles and joints

Developmental Psychology

The study of you from the womb to the tomb

Nature Vs. Nurture

-Are you YOU because of:

Nature: The way you were born

or

Nurture:The way you were raised?

Prenatal Development

-Conception begins with the drop of an egg and the release of about 200 million sperm (wow, fellas)

- The Sperm seeks out the egg and attempts to penetrate the egg's surface

-A Zygote is the FIRST  STAGE of prenatal development, and lasts about 2 weeks. It consists mainly of rapid cell division

-less than half of zygotes  survive the first 2 weeks 

- About 10 days after conception, the zygote will attach 

-the outer part becomes the Placenta, which filters nutrients

-The Embryo lasts about 6 week. It is the SECOND STAGE. At this stage, the heart begins to beat and organs begin to develop

-The Fetus is the THIRD STAGE to prenatal Development

- at this point, the stomach and organs have formed 

-the baby can hear and recognize sounds and has stimuli to light

Teratogens are chemical agents that can harm the prenatal environment, like:

- Alcohol (FAS) 

- HIV

-Herpes

Childbirth

Healthy newborns:

-Turn heads toward voices

-Sees 8-12 inches away from face

-Gaze longer at humanlike objects

Reflexes- are inborn automatic responses 

Rooting Reflexes: Baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to open the mouth, and search for the nipple 

Maturation

The physical growth, regardless of environment

Puberty

-A period of sexual maturation. During which, a person becomes capable of reproduction.

Primary Sexual Characteristics

- Body structures that make reproduction possible

-Testes -Ovaries -Ect.

Secondary Sexual Characteristics

-Non-reproductive sexual characteristics

-Widening of hips   - Lower Voice   -Breast Development   -Hair growth

Landmarks for maturation

-Menarche (F) Period

-Permarche (M) Ejaculation

Adulthood

Peaks at mid 20s

Physical milestones

-Menopause; the stop of menstrual cycle

Death

There are 5 main stages of death that a person  must overcome according to Elizabeth Kubler- Ross

1.) Denial

2.) Anger

3.) Bargaining

4.) Depression

5.) Acceptance

Social Development

Stranger Anxiety is when an infant encounters a stranger and displays anxiety 

Separation Anxiety is when a child is separated from the parents and is distraught

Attachment-  was studied by Harry Harlow and his monkeys in which Harry showed that monkeys needed to touch and feel in order to form attachment

Critical Period is the optimal period in a child's life, shortly after birth in which an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produce proper development

there are 3 forms of attachment

Secure- When the parents are able to go to work and the child is comfortable

Avoidant- when the parents are returned and the child avoids them because they are upset that the parent has abandoned them

Anxious/Ambivalent- The child feels ambivalent because of the caregiver's inconsistency in availability

Parenting

there are 3 main types of parenting

Authoritarian- parents are the bosses

Permissive- Laissez Faire- the kids are in charge

Authoritative- Parents and kids come together as a compromise

ERIK ERIKSON

was a Neo-Freudian  that thought that our personality was influenced by experiences with others

Stg 1: Trust Vs. Mistrust

-yrs 0-2

- The trust that they develop can carry on with the child for the rest of their life

Stg 2: Autonomy Vs. Shame definition

-yrs 1-3

-"NO" 

- Toddlers begin to control their bodies

- can they learn to control themselves?

Stg 3: Initiative Vs. Guilt

-yrs 3-6

-"WHY"

- is their curiosity scolded or encouraged?

- they want to understand the world and ask questions

Stg 4: Industry Inferiority

-school begins

-evaluated by formal system and peers

-do we feel good about our accomplishments? (inferiority complex)

Stg 5: Identity Vs. Role Confusion

-teenage years

-try out different role

Stg 6:Intimacy Vs. Isolation

-Early Adulthood

-balance work and relationships

Stg 7: Generality Vs. Stagnation

-yrs 40-50

-mid life crisis

-Will i be successful in life?

Stg 8: Integrity Vs. Despair

-looks back on life

-was my life meaningful?

Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget

Believed that kids  learned differently than adults

Schemas- Understanding the world around us

*basically what you first picture when you think of something

Assimilation: incorporating new experiences into existing schemas

Accomodation: Changing an existing schema to adopt new information 

Conservation- The idea that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearances. It is a part of logical thinking

Stages of cognitive development

Stg 1: Sensorimotor stage

-yrs 0-2

-do not have object permanence

-respond based upon senses

Stg 2: Preoperational Stage

-yrs 2-7 

-have object permanence

- begin to use language to represent objects and ideas

-egocentric- cannot look at the world through anyone's eyes but their own

Stg 3: Concrete Operational Stage

-yrs 7-11

-can demonstrate concept of conservation

-learn to think logically

Stg 4: Formal Operational Stage

-Abstract Reasoning

-Can manipulate objects 

-hypothesis testing

-trial and error

-metacognition

-not every adult gets to this stage

Types of Intelligence

there are 2 Types of intelligence

-Crystallized Intelligence is accumulated knowledge that increases with age

-Fluid Intelligence is the ability to solve problems quickly and think abstracly.

Moral Development

was studied by Lawrence Kohlberg and was sectioned into 3 stages

Stg 1: Preconventional morality

- based on rewards and punishment system

Stg 2: Conventional morality

- Morality based on how others see you

Stg 3: Post Conventional morality

-Based on self defined ethical principles

-based on your own set of  ethics

Brain Structure

The brain is divided into three main parts

The Hindbrain
The Midbrain
The Forebrain

The Hindbrain

Medulla Oblongata

-controls heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure

Pons

-Connects the hindbrain, midbrain,and forebrain

-involved with facial expressions

Cerebellum

-Located in the back of the head

-means Little Brain

-coordinates muscle movements

The Midbrain

-coordinates simple movements with sensory information

Reticular formation

arousal and ability to focus attention

The Forebrain

Thalamus

-receives sensory information and sends them to the appropriate part of the brain

-Like a switchboard

-controls all senses but smell

Limbic System

-Emotional control center of the brain

-made up of the Hypothalamus, Amygdala, and Hippocampus

Hypothalamus

-Peasized

-controls body temperature, hunger, and thirst

Hippocampus

-involved in memory processing

Amygdala

-Vital for our basic emotions

The Cerebral Cortex

-Is the top layer of the brain, and contains fissures that increase the surface area of the brain, and when laid out is about the size of a pizza.

the question is, how big is the pizza

and can I have a slice

It is also divided into 2 Hemispheres, the Left and Right Hemisphere

The two hemispheres are associated with

Contrallateral control- the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body, Vice Versa

and

Brain Lateralization-  Lefties are better at spatial and creative tasks, Righties are better at logic

Which one are you, and does this hold true?

The Corpus Callosum 

attatches the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex, and when removed, you are diagnosed with split brain

The Cerebral cortex can be further divided into 4 major lobes:

• The frontal lobe
• The Parietal lobe
• The Occipital lobe
• The Temporal Lobe

The Frontal Lobe

-associated with abstract thought and emotional control

-contains the Motor Cortex which is associated with muscle movements

-Contains Broca's area which is responsible for controlling muscles that produce speech

-Damage to the Broca's area is called Broca's Aphasia, in which victims are unable to make movements to talk.

The Parietal Lobe

-Contains the Sensory Cortex, which receives incoming touch sensations from the rest of the body

-most of the parietal lobe is made up of Association Areas, which are NOT associated with receiving sensory information or coordinating muscle movements. It is involved with higher thinking processes

The Occipital Lobe

-Deals with Vision

-Contains Visual Cortex and interprets messages from our eyes into images we can understand

The Temporal Lobe

-Process sound sense by our ears

- Contains Wernike's Area and interprets written and spoken speech

-those diagnosed with Wernike's Aphasia are unable to understand language; the syntax and grammar are jumbled

The Endocrine System

is the system of glands that secrete hormones. It is similar to the nervous system, except hormones work slower than neurotransmitters. The major Endocrine Glands consist of:

The Pituitary Gland

-secretes many different hormones and affect other glands

The Adrenal Gland

Inner part is called the medulla

Triggers our flight or fight instincts

The Pancreas

Regulates Level of sugar in the blood

The Reproductive Glands

-Ovaries Secrete female sex hormone

-Testes Secret male sex hormones

The Thyroid

-Affects our metabolism

For those of you who have trouble retaining all this information (and trust me, you're not alone) my friends and I made a song, that will help you remember. Below are the lyrics and Video

The Best Brain of My Life

[Verse]

We use our brain every day,

It’s made of matter that is gray,

Woah oh oh oh oh oh oh (x2)

There are 4 lobes to the brain,

Connected like a track of trains,

Woah oh oh oh oh oh oh (x2)

We have the frontal lobe, woah,

We have the occipital, woah,

Don’t forget the parietal and temporal

[Chorus]

Woo, woo, I’m gonna tell you ‘bout my brain,

My brain,

Woo, woo, It’s connected to my brainstem,

Connects my brain my whole body!

(Musical Intermission)

[Verse]

I talk and sing with Wernicke’s,

It helps me understand with ease,

Woah oh oh oh oh oh oh oh,

It’s in the temporal,

To see what I see every day,

The visual cortex guides my way,

Woah oh oh oh oh oh oh,

It’s in the occipital

The pituitary helps us – to grow

With the hypothalamus, woah

It controls thirst, hunger, temperature

[Chrous]

Woo, woo, I’m gonna tell you ‘bout my brain,

My brain,

Woo, woo, the cerebellum is the little brain,

The sensory cortex lets us feel pain!

(Musical Intermission)

[Bridge]

The cerebral cortex is the top layer,

The hippocampus processes memories,

The motor cortex moves us,

The thalamus sends signals,

The medulla controls the vitals

(Musical Intermission)

[Chorus]

Woo, woo, I’m gonna tell you ‘bout my brain,

My brain,

Woo, woo, the Corpus connects our two hemispheres,

The Pons helps me to show all my fears

(Musical Intermission)

[Verse]

Association areas,

They help us choose what’s best for us,

 Woah, it’s in all of our lobes,

Reticular formation,

Centers education,

Woah, it’s next to the Medulla

(Musical Intermission)

[Chorus]

Woo, woo, the Broca’s areas in the frontal lobe,

It helps us talk all over the globe,

Woo, woo, the last part is the Amygdala,

It controls all our emotions

Everybody think, everybody think, everybody think,

With our entire brain,

This is what our brain –

This is what it’s made up of

Woo woo, we just told you ‘bout our brain,

Our brain